The Early Church

The Apologist Who Believed Too Much

A sophomore apologetics assignment on Justin Martyr's First Apology cost me the church I was raised in. What chapter 66 says about the Eucharist.

The Didache — Old Enough for the Canon, and Still Left Out

The Didache may be older than the last books of the New Testament, yet no Bible ever carried it. What the earliest church order says, and why it was left out.

Pope Saint Marcellinus: The Twenty-Ninth Pope, the Lapse Rome Tried to Forget, and the Council That Never Met

Marcellinus, the twenty-ninth pope (296–304), was accused of sacrificing to idols, erased from Rome's oldest calendars, and defended by a council that never met.

Pope Saint Marcellus I: The Thirtieth Pope, the Broken Church He Rebuilt, and the Mercy That Got Him Exiled

Marcellus I, the thirtieth pope (308–309), rebuilt Rome's Church after the Great Persecution and was exiled by Maxentius for making the lapsed do penance.

Pope Saint Miltiades: The Thirty-Second Pope, the Emperor's Peace, and the Schism It Could Not Heal

Miltiades, the thirty-second pope (311–314), lived from the last persecution into Constantine's peace, received the Lateran, and judged the first Donatist trial.

Pope Saint Caius: The Twenty-Eighth Pope, the Ladder of Holy Orders, and the Emperor's Kinsman

Caius, or Gaius, the twenty-eighth pope (283–296), governed in the long peace before Diocletian's storm—a confessor, not a martyr, whose gravestone survives.

Pope Saint Eusebius: The Thirty-First Pope, the Schism Over the Lapsed, and the Enemy Exiled Beside Him

Eusebius, the thirty-first pope (309 or 310), reigned four months before the emperor Maxentius exiled him—and his rival Heraclius—over the fate of the lapsed.

Pope Saint Eutychian: The Twenty-Seventh Pope, the Reign No One Can Measure, and the Stone That Tells the Truth

Eutychian, the twenty-seventh pope (275–283): a reign Eusebius counts in months and Rome in years, legends of beans and buried martyrs, and one true stone.

Pope Saint Anterus: The Nineteenth Pope, a Forty-Day Reign, and the Greek Tombstone That Outlived His Legend

Anterus is the nineteenth pope (235–236): a forty-day reign, probably the first pope laid in the Crypt of the Popes, and a broken Greek epitaph that calls him bishop, not martyr.

Pope Saint Callixtus I: The Sixteenth Pope, the Slave Who Wore the Keys, and the Scandal of Mercy

Callixtus I is the sixteenth pope (c. 217–222): a former slave, convict, and cemetery administrator whose policy of readmitting grave sinners after penance scandalized the rigorists—and won.

Pope Saint Cornelius: The Twenty-First Pope, the Antipope Novatian, and the Church's Power to Forgive

Cornelius, the twenty-first pope (251–253), faced the rigorist antipope Novatian—and staked the Church's authority on its power to forgive the lapsed after penance.

Pope Saint Dionysius: The Twenty-Fifth Pope, the Two Dionysii, and the Trinity Before Nicaea

Dionysius, the twenty-fifth pope (259–268): the first pope not venerated as a martyr, who rebuilt Rome after persecution and defined the Trinity before Nicaea.

Pope Saint Eleutherius: The Thirteenth Pope, the Martyrs of Lyons, and the Legend of a British King

Eleutherius is the thirteenth pope (c. 175–189)—the deacon who became pope, correspondent of the martyrs of Lyons, and the pope a medieval legend made converter of Britain.

Pope Saint Fabian: The Twentieth Pope, the Dove That Chose Him, and the Martyrdom Carved in Stone

Fabian is the twentieth pope (236–250): a layman chosen when a dove settled on his head, the organizer of Christian Rome, and the first pope whose martyrdom is documented history.

Pope Saint Felix I: The Twenty-Sixth Pope, the Martyrdom He Never Suffered, and the Letter He Never Wrote

Felix I is the twenty-sixth pope (269–274): a martyr's crown he never earned and a famous letter on Christ he never wrote—both forgeries over one solid fact.

Pope Saint Lucius I: The Twenty-Second Pope, the Eight-Month Reign, and the Confessor the Church Mistook for a Martyr

Lucius I is the twenty-second pope (253–254): an eight-month reign spent partly in exile, and a confessor the oldest Roman calendar declines to call a martyr.

Pope Saint Pontian: The Eighteenth Pope, the First to Abdicate, and the Reconciliation in the Mines

Pontian is the eighteenth pope (230–235): the first pope to abdicate, exiled with Hippolytus to the mines of Sardinia—where pope and antipope were reconciled.

Pope Saint Sixtus II: The Twenty-Fourth Pope, the Peacemaker, and the Martyrdom Rome Wrote Down

Sixtus II, the twenty-fourth pope (257–258): the peacemaker who healed the rebaptism schism, then died under Valerian's sword—a martyrdom Rome wrote down.

Pope Saint Soter: The Twelfth Pope, the Charity of Rome, and a Thank-You Letter That Survived

Soter is the twelfth pope (c. 166–175), known almost entirely through a letter from Corinth praising Roman charity. His own letter was read at Sunday worship—then lost.

Pope Saint Stephen I: The Twenty-Third Pope, the Rebaptism War, and the First Appeal to the Chair of Peter

Stephen I is the twenty-third pope (254–257): the rebaptism war with Cyprian, the first surviving papal appeal to the succession of Peter, and a martyrdom the earliest records do not support.

Pope Saint Urban I: The Seventeenth Pope, a Life Written by Legend, and the Riddle of the Two Urbans

Urban I is the seventeenth pope (c. 222–230). Almost nothing certain is known of his reign—the vivid life is legend—and even his grave is disputed between two catacombs.

Pope Saint Victor I: The Fourteenth Pope, the Easter Ultimatum, and the First African in Peter's Chair

Victor I is the fourteenth pope (c. 189–199)—the African who threatened to cut off the churches of Asia over Easter, cut off Theodotus the cobbler for heresy, and marks the papacy's turn to command.

Pope Saint Zephyrinus: The Fifteenth Pope, His Brilliant Enemy, and the Trinity Before the Councils

Zephyrinus is the fifteenth pope (c. 199–217), known chiefly through the hostile pen of Hippolytus. His clumsy formulas on the Trinity ended up in Denzinger's collection of the Church's dogmatic declarations.

Pope Saint Anicetus: The Eleventh Pope, Polycarp's Host, and the Easter Dispute Rome Let Stand

Anicetus is the eleventh pope (c. 155–166), who received Polycarp of Smyrna and let the Easter-date dispute stand in peace. The martyr title has no early source.

Pope Saint Pius I: The Tenth Pope, the Brother of Hermas, and the Roman Church That Fought Marcion

Pius I was the tenth pope (c. 140–154), brother to Hermas of The Shepherd and the bishop under whom Rome expelled Marcion. No early source calls him a martyr.

Pope Saint Hyginus: The Ninth Pope, the Gnostic Crisis, and a Martyrdom the Sources Do Not Record

Hyginus, the ninth pope (c. 138–142), reigned as Valentinus and Cerdo brought Gnosticism to Rome. The martyr title attached to his name has no early source.

Pope Saint Telesphorus: The Eighth Pope, the First Martyred Successor, and the Long Backdrop to the Easter Quarrel

Telesphorus is the eighth pope and the first after Peter whose martyrdom rests on a primary source. The Christmas Mass and seven-week Lent later credited to him are another matter.

Pope Saint Sixtus I: The Seventh Pope, the Sanctus, and a Name That Means Sixth

Sixtus I is the seventh pope—the sixth name on Irenaeus's list. Tradition gave him the Sanctus and a martyr's death; the earliest sources are far more reticent.

Pope Saint Alexander I: The Sixth Pope and a Case of Mistaken Identity

Alexander I is the sixth pope—a name on Irenaeus's list. Tradition gave him holy water and a martyr's death; the earliest sources are far more reticent.

Saint Andrew the Apostle: The First-Called and the Brother of Peter

A scholarly account of Saint Andrew the Apostle: New Testament sources, the Patras martyrdom, the saltire X-cross legend, the relics, and Scottish patronage.

Pope Saint Evaristus: The Fifth Pope and the Silence of the Record

Evaristus is the fifth pope—a name on Irenaeus's list. Here's what the earliest sources actually say, and what the Liber Pontificalis added 400 years later.

Pope Saint Clement I: The Voice of the First Apostleless Generation

Clement of Rome wrote our earliest post-apostolic Christian letter. His message to Corinth still shapes apostolic succession and Roman primacy debates.

Saint Anacletus: The Third Pope History Can Barely See

The third Bishop of Rome is named at every Mass, yet almost nothing about him can be verified. The honest history of Anacletus, the pope history can barely see.

Simon Peter: The Fisherman Who Became the Rock

The life of Simon Peter—first among the apostles and first pope—traced through Scripture, the Church Fathers, and modern archaeology at Capernaum and Rome.

Did Constantine Create Christianity? Separating History from Myth

Did Constantine invent Christianity or choose what books went in the Bible? A historian's guide to what Constantine actually did — and didn't do — at the Council of Nicaea.

The Gnostic Gospels: A Catholic Guide to the Nag Hammadi Texts

What are the Gnostic Gospels? A Catholic guide to the Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Philip, Apocryphon of John, and other Nag Hammadi texts—what they say and why they matter.

Gnosticism vs. Christianity: How the Ancient Heresy Distorted the Faith

How does Gnosticism differ from Christianity? A Catholic comparison of their views on God, creation, Jesus, salvation, scripture, and the body—and why it matters today.

What Is Gnosticism? A Catholic Guide to the Ancient Heresy

What is Gnosticism? A Catholic guide to proto-Gnostic currents, the 2nd-century systems, the Nag Hammadi texts, and the Church Fathers' response through canon, creed, and doctrine.